A mobile car monitoring system as a supplementary tool for air quality monitoring in urban and rural environments: the case study from Poland.

Living in healthy environment should be regarded as a primary human right and not a privilege rendered to chosen ones. For that reason, a national air monitoring grid should be as extensive as possible. Unfortunately, small towns and villages, which are also exposed to air pollution episodes are not commonly covered by monitoring grid. Fixed air monitoring systems have their limitations, which can be overcome by e.g., properly validated, reliable but cheaper mobile monitoring systems. The aim of this study was to assess the use of a car mobile PM10 monitoring system to study ambient air quality in rural communities surrounding Kraków, not covered by fixed monitoring grid. A monitoring dataset was collected during 6 winter car campaigns conducted between December 2021 and March 2022. Except for providing multiple monitoring data, the main goal pertain to methodological aspect of the mobile system, including its validation, indicating its advantages, limitations as well as providing recommendations for the future mobile studies. Our car mobile monitoring system was useful in identifying a local hot-spots with good spatial and temporal resolution, thus giving the local government decision-making tool for taking appropriate action in places not included in national monitoring grid.

Adverse health and environmental outcomes of cycling in heavily polluted urban environments.

Cycling is a healthy habit; however, are its benefits outweighing risks when biking in heavily trafficked and air-polluted cities? Research involved studying contamination with traffic-related elements of dust collected from bike paths located in top trafficked cities of Europe in Poland. Human health risk was assessed via inhalation and ingestion pathways for adults and children. Bike path dust was heavily contaminated with Zn, Cd (Geoaccumulation index Igeo 4) and Pb (Igeo 3), sourced predominantly from nonexhaust car emissions. The concentrations of metals in dust decreased in the following descending order: Zn > Mn > Cu > Pb > Cr > Cd. A fractionation study revealed that Zn and Cd are almost entirely bioavailable (Mobility factor MF above 90%), causing hazards to humans and the environment. The highest congested intersections result in more TRAP-contaminated dust deposited on bike paths, which is easily resuspended, posing a health risk for cyclists or pedestrians. Avoiding cycling in proximity to heavily trafficked routes should be considered, when possible, as well as physical removal of dust by wet sweeping to limit dust resuspension.

Content of toxic metals and As in marine and freshwater fish species available for sale in EU supermarkets and health risk associated with its consumption.

BACKGROUND: The present study investigated Pb, Cd and As concentrations in canned tuna, tuna steak, rainbow trout, smoked mackerel, and Baltic and Atlantic cod, as well as Atlantic salmon. The aim was to spot check the quality of the most commonly purchased types of fish that are available for sale in most common supermarket chains throughout the Poland, as well as to determine potentially less contaminated sources of fish available for retail. A dry ashing digestion protocol followed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis was employed to achieve a better recover of heavy metals and As from fish muscle tissues. RESULTS: The cumulative concentration of metals and As in fish muscle tissue decreases in order: farmed Atlantic salmon > mackerel > Baltic cod > rainbow trout > canned tuna fish > Atlantic cod > yellowfin tuna steak. It was found that canned tuna from Central and Eastern Pacific Ocean were more contaminated than tuna from East and West Indian Ocean, Baltic cod was significantly more contaminated than cod from North-East Atlantic. Smoked mackerel from North-East Pacific Ocean is three times more contaminated than mackerel from Northern North Sea. All fish, except for yellowfin tuna steak, should not be intended for retail because they exceed maximum levels for Cd and Pb. CONCLUSION: Consuming only one serving (140 g) of Baltic cod exposes one to 51% of the daily acceptable Cd intake, while the same portion of canned tuna and smoked mackerel from the Pacific Ocean deliver 69% and 72% of this element respectively. The most cadmium is consumed with smoked mackerel from the North Sea, comprising as much as 162% of the daily acceptable dosage . © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Human Health Risk Assessment associated with contaminants in the finest fraction of sidewalk dust collected in proximity to trafficked roads.

The objective of the study was to determine concentration of metals in sidewalk dust collected in close vicinity to heavily congested roads in Poland in order to assess non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risk for both children and adults associated with the ingestion, dermal contact and inhalation of sidewalk dust. Results revealed that sidewalk dust from Warsaw, Krakow, Wroclaw and Opole is heavily contaminated especially with Sb, Se, Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb, considered as indicators of traffic emission. Hazardous indices determined for different exposure pathways indicated that the greatest health risk for both children and adults is associated with the ingestion of sidewalk dust. Carcinogenic risk associated with the ingestion of sidewalk dust by children, calculated for As, Cd, Ni and Pb exceeded safe level of 1 × 10-4 in all cities except for Warsaw. Non-carcinogenic risk of ingestion for children was two orders of magnitude higher than dermal risk and four to five orders of magnitude higher than risk of inhalation. Non-carcinogenic risk associated with the ingestion of sidewalk dust by adults is comparable with dermal contact risk and five orders of magnitude higher when inhalation risk.

Road Environments: Impact of Metals on Human Health in Heavily Congested Cities of Poland.

Road dust as a by-product of exhaust and non-exhaust emissions can be a major cause of systemic oxidative stress and multiple disorders. Substantial amounts of road dust are repeatedly resuspended, in particular at traffic lights and junctions where more braking is involved, causing potential threat to pedestrians, especially children. In order to determine the degree of contamination in the heavily traffic-congested cities of Poland, a total of 148 samples of road dust (RD), sludge from storm drains (SL) and roadside soil (RS) were collected. Sixteen metals were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in all samples. Chemical evaluation followed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that road environments have been severely contaminated with traffic-related elements. Concentration of copper in all road-environment samples is even higher, exceeding even up to 15 times its average concentrations established for the surrounding soils. Non-carcinogenic health risk assessment revealed that the hazard index (HI) for children in all road-environment samples exceeds the safe level of 1. Therefore, greater attention should be paid to potential health risks caused by the ingestion of traffic-related particles during outdoor activities.

Chemical fractionation and mobility of traffic-related elements in road environments.

Due to considerable progress in exhaust control emission technology and extensive regulatory work regarding this issue, non-exhaust sources of air pollution have become a growing concern. This research involved studying three types of road environment samples such as road dust, sludge from storm drains and roadside soil collected from heavily congested and polluted cities in Poland (Krakow, Warszawa, Opole and Wroclaw). Particles below 20 µm were examined since it was previously estimated that this fine fraction of road dust is polluted mostly by metals derived from non-exhaust sources of pollution such as brake linings wear. Chemical analysis of all samples was combined with a fractionation study using BCR protocol. It was concluded that the finest fractions of road environment samples were significantly contaminated with all of the investigated metals, in particular with Zn, Cu, both well-known key tracers of brake and tire wear. In Warszawa, the pollution index for Zn was on average 15-18 times the background value, in Krakow 12 times, in Wroclaw 8-12 times and in Opole 6-9 times the background value. The pollution index for Cu was on average 6-14 times the background in Warszawa, 7-8 times in Krakow, 4-6 times in Wroclaw and in Opole 5 times the background value. Fractionation study revealed that mobility of examined metals decreases in that order: Zn (43-62%) > Cd (25-42%) > Ni (6-16%) > Cu (3-14%) > Pb (1-8%). It should, however, be noted that metals even when not mobile in the environment can become a serious health concern when ingested or inhaled.

Assessing Historical Mining and Smelting Effects on Heavy Metal Pollution of River Systems over Span of Two Decades.

Research was conducted on the most polluted river system in Poland, impacted by active and historical mining. Bottom sediment, suspended particulate matter and river water were collected in 2014 from Przemsza river and its tributaries. Sampling points remained the same as those chosen in a 1995 study. This allowed the comparison of heavy metal accumulation in bottom sediment over a span of almost two decades. It was concluded that Przemsza river water and its tributaries are heavily contaminated with the following (in µg/dm3): Pb (0.99-145.7), Zn (48-5020), and Cd 0.12-12.72). Concentrations of metals in bottom sediment exceeded the background values by a factor of several hundred (100 times for Zn, 150 times for Pb, and 240 times for Cd). The arithmetic mean for metal concentration in fractions <63 µm sampled in 2014 has remained comparable to the level found in 1995 (in mg/kg): Zn 16,918 and 13,505, Pb 4177 and 4758, and Cd 92 and 134. It was determined that 20-50% more metals have accumulated in suspended matter, rather than in bottom sediment (in mg/kg): 20,498 Zn, Pb 5170, and 164 Cd. This exceeds the limits of the most polluted LAWA Class IV classification. Since the concentrations of Zn, Pb, and Cd increase drastically after the outlet of the Przemsza into the Vistula, it was concluded that river Przemsza is the cause of significant degradation of Vistula's bottom sediment and suspended matter. A two-decade legacy of extremely high contamination of the Przemsza river sediments has persisted despite decreasing mining and smelting activity in the vicinity.

Heavy metals from non-exhaust vehicle emissions in urban and motorway road dusts.

The main sources of non-exhaust vehicular emissions that contribute to road dust are tire, brake and clutch wear, road surface wear, and other vehicle and road component degradation. This study is an attempt to identify and investigate heavy metals in urban and motorway road dusts as well as in dust from brake linings and tires. Road dust was collected from sections of the A-4 motorway in Poland, which is part of European route E40, and from urban roads in Katowice, Poland. Dust from a relatively unpolluted mountain road was collected and examined as a control sample. Selected metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, Fe, Se, Sr, Ba, Ti, and Pd were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma (ICP)-optical emission spectroscopy, and atomic absorption spectroscopy on a range of size-fractionated road dust and brake lining dust (<20, 20-56, 56-90, 90-250, and >250 µm). The compositions of brake lining and tire dust were also investigated using scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive spectroscopy. To estimate the degree of potential environmental risk of non-exhaust emissions, comparison with the geochemical background and the calculations of geo-accumulation indices were performed. The finest fractions of urban and motorway dusts were significantly contaminated with all of the investigated metals, especially with Ti, Cu, and Cr, which are well-recognized key tracers of non-exhaust brake wear. Urban dust was, however, more contaminated than motorway dust. It was therefore concluded that brake lining and tire wear strongly contributed to the contamination of road dust.

A morphometric study of prenatal development of the human larynx.

INTRODUCTION: Precise knowledge of the anatomy and development of the airways in the fetus is needed for advances in neonatal medicine. The aim of this study was to assess the morphometry of the larynx during fetal development. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was performed on 47 human fetal larynges (27 male and 20 female) collected between the age of 13-27 weeks of intrauterine life according to Pineau and preserved in 10% buffered formalin. Five measurements of each larynx were performed: total height of the larynx, height of the anterior wall, height of the posterior wall of the larynx, sagittal diameter of the aperture of the larynx, and external sagittal diameter of the cricoid cartilage. Correlations between the results and crown-rump (C-R) length of human fetuses in relation to gender were analyzed. The percentage ratio of laryngeal length to C-R length in subsequent weeks of the fetal period and in relation to gender was determined. RESULTS: Dimensions of the larynx were found to correlate with crown-rump length. Mean lengths of the larynx were greater in male than in female fetuses at some stages of development. CONCLUSION: Ultrasound dimensions of the larynx are greater than dimensions found during postmortem examinations.

Prenatal development of the human trachea.

The tracheas of 46 human foetuses were examined: 26 male, 20 female with C-R length of 99-255 mm. The analysis of the total length of the trachea was carried out and its transverse dimension was presented on three levels: on the first tracheal cartilage, in the mid-length of the trachea, and at the bifurcation into the main bronchi; also the proportions between these dimensions and the C-R length were analysed. The length of the trachea was measured in a straight line--from the end of larynx to the bifurcation of the trachea. Comparing tracheas to a tunnel with two openings, it was observed that the transverse dimension, the "laryngeal", is greater than the "bronchial"--in the case of smaller foetuses by 2 mm, but in foetuses with C-R length of over 250 mm by 1 mm. Moreover, no significant differences between male and female sex were noticed. All the measurements were taken with the use of a slide caliper. The results should be useful in the detection of abnormalities in the structure of the trachea, in problems with respiratory physiology and in endotracheal intubation, endoscopy or tracheostomy.

[Prenatal development of the human humerus in light of anthropometric examinations]. / Rozwój kosci ramiennej u plodów ludzkich w swietle badan antropometrycznych, histologicznych i angiologicznych.

The study was done on 128 humeral bones (76 male and 52 female; 57 right and 71 left) obtained from 71 fetuses with C-R lengths ranging from 105 to 255 mm. Periosteum and perichondrium were exposed prior to radiography of frontal and lateral aspects using a Microphocus 401 bone X-ray apparatus. Radiographs were digitized with an analogue camera and an A/D converter for transfer to a PC computer. Nine measurements were done for each bone. Changes in proportions (structure-to-shaft ratios) during development were studied using non-linear regression analysis. The number of nutritive vessels in ossifying bone shafts were determined and indices were calculated representing sites of penetration into the humerus. The mean C-R length of the fetus when the first ossification center in the humerus appeared was 20.34 mm (21.75 mm in females and 19.0 mm in males corresponding to gestation age of 7 to 8 weeks). The length of the ossifying shaft increased proportionally to C-R length. The regression equations representing changes in the proportions of the humerus were linear in four cases: minimum anterior-posterior shaft size, minimum medial-lateral shaft size, maximum anterior-posterior condylus size, width of distal cartilage. The relative decrease in the length of the proximal and distal cartilages and their sum was regressed to three hyperbolic functions. The absolute length in mm of these cartilages increased. This change could be expressed with three exponential equations having positive fractional exponents. A single parabolic equation described the increase in the absolute and relative length of the distant chondro-osseous region. Analysis of the number of nutrient vessels, their direction and relation to surrounding structures was done in 76 humeral bones. The results are presented for pooled bones, as well as arranged by side (39 (51.3%) right, 37 (48.7%) left) and gender (54 (71%) male, 22 (29%) female). The number of nutrient foramina varied from one to three. A single nutrient foramen was found in 50%, two were disclosed in 40.85% and three in 9.2% of bones. Furthermore, 70.25% of them were located in zone IV on the anteromedial surface and the medial margin, 10.75% on the anterolateral and 15.7% on the posterior surfaces. The principal nutrient foramen contained an artery accompanied by a relatively large vein. As a rule, accessory foramina contained veins only, but in rare cases a branch of the nutrient artery was also present. All nutrient canals were directed distally. No significant differences were disclosed between right and left, male and female humeral bones as to indices representing location of the nutrient foramina.